1.
Identify and describe
at least five risk factors that the patient has for developing disorders of the
cardiovascular system. Justify your answer.
A risk factor is any
attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the
likelihood of developing a disease or injury.
Hypertension: The most
important behavioural risk factors of heart disease and stroke are unhealthy
diet, physical inactivity, tobacco use and harmful use of alcohol. The effects
of behavioural risk factors may show up in individuals as raised blood
pressure, raised blood glucose, raised blood lipids, and overweight and
obesity.
Obesity:
·
Genetics. Your genes may affect the amount of body
fat you store, and where that fat is distributed. Genetics may also play a role
in how efficiently your body converts food into energy and how your body burns
calories during exercise.
·
Inactivity. If you're not very active, you don't
burn as many calories. With a sedentary lifestyle, you can easily take in more
calories every day than you burn through exercise and routine daily activities.
Having medical problems, such as arthritis, can lead to decreased activity,
which contributes to weight gain.
·
Unhealthy
diet. A diet that's
high in calories, lacking in fruits and vegetables, full of fast food, and
laden with high-calorie beverages and oversized portions contributes to weight
gain.
·
Medical
problems. In some people,
obesity can be traced to a medical cause, such as Prader-Willi syndrome,
Cushing's syndrome and other conditions. Medical problems, such as arthritis,
also can lead to decreased activity, which may result in weight gain.
·
Certain
medications. Some medications
can lead to weight gain if you don't compensate through diet or activity. These
medications include some antidepressants, anti-seizure medications, diabetes
medications, antipsychotic medications, steroids and beta blockers.
·
Age. Obesity can occur at any age, even in
young children. But as you age, hormonal changes and a less active lifestyle
increase your risk of obesity. In addition, the amount of muscle in your body
tends to decrease with age. This lower muscle mass leads to a decrease in
metabolism. These changes also reduce calorie needs, and can make it harder to
keep off excess weight. If you don't consciously control what you eat and
become more physically active as you age, you'll likely gain weight.
·
Pregnancy. During pregnancy, a woman's weight
necessarily increases. Some women find this weight difficult to lose after the
baby is born. This weight gain may contribute to the development of obesity in
women.
·
Quitting
smoking. Quitting smoking
is often associated with weight gain. And for some, it can lead to enough
weight gain that the person becomes obese. In the long run, however, quitting
smoking is still a greater benefit to your health than continuing to smoke.
·
Lack
of sleep. Not getting
enough sleep or getting too much sleep can cause changes in hormones that
increase your appetite. You may also crave foods high in calories and
carbohydrates, which can contribute to weight gain.
Osteoporosis:
·
Your
sex. Women are much
more likely to develop osteoporosis than are men.
·
Age. The older you get, the greater your risk
of osteoporosis.
·
Race. You're at greatest risk of osteoporosis
if you're white or of Asian descent.
·
Family
history. Having a parent
or sibling with osteoporosis puts you at greater risk, especially if your
mother or father experienced a hip fracture.
·
Body
frame size. Men and women
who have small body frames tend to have a higher risk because they may have
less bone mass to draw from as they age.
·
Sedentary
lifestyle. People who spend
a lot of time sitting have a higher risk of osteoporosis than do those who are
more active. Any weight-bearing exercise and activities that promote balance
and good posture are beneficial for your bones, but walking, running, jumping,
dancing and weightlifting seem particularly helpful.
·
Excessive
alcohol consumption. Regular
consumption of more than two alcoholic drinks a day increases your risk of
osteoporosis.
·
Tobacco
use. The exact role
tobacco plays in osteoporosis isn't clearly understood, but it has been shown
that tobacco use contributes to weak bones.
Lungs cancer:
Tobacco use, alcohol use, unhealthy
diet and physical inactivity are the main cancer risk factors worldwide. Some
chronic infections are risk factors for cancer and have major relevance in low-
and middle-income countries. Also personal
or family history of lung cancer; people who have had lung cancer have an increased risk of
developing a second lung cancer.
Anxiety:
·
Being
female. Women are more
likely than men to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder.
·
Trauma. Children who endured abuse or trauma or
witnessed traumatic events are at higher risk of developing an anxiety disorder
at some point in life. Adults who experience a traumatic event also can develop
anxiety disorders.
·
Stress
due to an illness. Having a health
condition or serious illness can cause significant worry about issues such as
your treatment and your future.
·
Stress
buildup. A big event or a
buildup of smaller stressful life situations may trigger excessive anxiety —
for example, a death in the family or ongoing worry about finances.
·
Personality. People with certain personality types
are more prone to anxiety disorders than are others.
·
Other
mental health disorders. People
with other mental health disorders, such as depression, often experience
anxiety disorder as well.
·
Having
blood relatives with an anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders can run in families.
·
Drugs
or alcohol. Drug or alcohol
use or abuse or withdrawal can cause or worsen anxiety.
2.
Explain the function
of the cardiovascular system by describing the cardiac cycle and how it relates
to blood pressure, how blood flows through the heart and the blood vessels,
capillary exchange, and the function of all the components of blood (plasma,
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets). Use illustrations to
demonstrate functions.
3.
Explain the function
of the respiratory system and how it works with the cardiovascular system to
achieve respiration. Describe ventilation, external and internal respiration.
Include illustrations of each process.
The respiratory system
The human respiratory system
contains the organs that allow us to get the oxygen we need and to remove the
waste carbon dioxide we don't need. It contains these parts:
·
lungs
·
tubes leading from the lungs to the mouth and nose
·
various structures in the chest that allow air to move in and
out of the lungs.
Ventilation
Movements of the ribs, rib
muscles and diaphragm allow air into and out of the lungs. Take care - this is
called breathing or ventilation, not
respiration. When we breathe in, we inhale. When we breathe out, we exhale.
Air passes between the lungs and
the outside of the body through the windpipe,
called the trachea. The trachea
divides into two bronchi, with one bronchus for each lung.
Each bronchus divides further
in the lungs into smaller tubes called bronchioles. At the end of each
bronchiole, there is a group of tiny air sacs. These air sacs have bulges
called alveoli to increase their surface area.
Interaction
The cardiovascular and the respiratory system both work
toward the same goal: getting oxygen to tissues and getting carbon dioxide out.
The respiratory system is involved in supplying oxygen to the blood and
removing carbon dioxide. When the heart receives blood that is low in oxygen
and high in carbon dioxide, it pumps it to the lungs via the pulmonary
arteries. When the lungs expand and get fresh air from the environment, oxygen
is transferred (via the alveoli) into the low-oxygen blood, which also then
sends some of its carbon dioxide back into the lungs. Now that this blood has
fresh oxygen in it, it returns to the heart and the heart then pumps it
throughout the body.
4.
Explain the functions
of the urinary system by describing the function of each organ, describe the
nephron and its blood supply, and finally describe the process of urine
formation using examples of substances that are filtered, reabsorbed and
excreted. Use illustrations
·Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the
ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to remove liquid waste
from the blood in the form of urine; keep a stable balance of salts and other
substances in the blood; and produce erythropoietin, a hormone that aids the
formation of red blood cells. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through
tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of
small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal
tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine
as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
·Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the
bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing
urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to
stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds,
small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
·Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower
abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and
the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and
contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy
adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two to five hours.
·Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from
leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the
bladder.
·Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate,
or empty the bladder.
·Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain
signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the
bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to
let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in
the correct order, normal urination occurs.
A nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of
the kidneys and its
chief function is to regulate water and soluble substances in the blood by
filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as
urine. Its function is vital for homeostasis. It is
regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.
VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCQ-5iwTQvM
6. Calculate the patient’s BMI to determine his nutritional status, and then make at least ten dietary recommendations to improve his overall health.
6. Calculate the patient’s BMI to determine his nutritional status, and then make at least ten dietary recommendations to improve his overall health.
1. Focus on
fruits. Eat a variety of fruits — fresh, frozen, canned, or dried —
rather than fruit juice for most of your fruit choices. For a 2,000-calorie
diet, you will need 2 cups of fruit each day. An example of 2 cups is 1 small
banana, 1 large orange, and 1/4 cup of dried apricots or peaches.
2. Vary your
veggies. Eat more:
a. dark
green veggies, such as broccoli, kale, and other dark leafy greens
b. orange
veggies, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, and winter squash
c. beans and
peas, such as pinto beans, kidney beans, black beans, garbanzo beans, split
peas, and lentils
3. Get your
calcium-rich foods. Each day, drink 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk. Or, you
can get an equivalent amount of low-fat yogurt and/or low-fat cheese each day.
1.5 ounces of cheese equals 1 cup of milk. If you don't or can't consume milk,
choose lactose-free milk products and/or calcium-fortified foods and drinks.
4. Make half
your grains whole. Eat at least 3 ounces of whole-grain cereals, breads,
crackers, rice, or pasta each day. One ounce is about 1 slice of bread, 1 cup
of breakfast cereal, or 1/2 cup of cooked rice or pasta. Look to see that grains
such as wheat, rice, oats, or corn are referred to as "whole" in the
list of ingredients.
5. Go lean
with protein. Choose lean meats and poultry. Bake it, broil it, or grill
it. Vary your protein choices with more fish, beans, peas, nuts, and seeds.
6. Limit saturated
fats. Get less than 10 percent of your calories from saturated
fatty acids. Most fats should come from sources of polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils. When
choosing and preparing meat, poultry, dry beans, and milk or milk products,
make choices that are lean, low-fat, or fat-free.
7. Limit
salt. Get less than 2,300 mg of sodium (about 1 teaspoon of salt)
each day.
Source: Boundless.
“Nephron, Parts, and Histology.” Boundless Anatomy and
Physiology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 01 Nov. 2015 from https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/the-urinary-system-25/the-kidneys-239/nephron-parts-and-histology-1170-2287/
