lunes, 2 de noviembre de 2015

Evidence 2



1.    Identify and describe at least five risk factors that the patient has for developing disorders of the cardiovascular system. Justify your answer.
A risk factor is any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. 

Hypertension: The most important behavioural risk factors of heart disease and stroke are unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, tobacco use and harmful use of alcohol. The effects of behavioural risk factors may show up in individuals as raised blood pressure, raised blood glucose, raised blood lipids, and overweight and obesity.
Obesity:
·         Genetics. Your genes may affect the amount of body fat you store, and where that fat is distributed. Genetics may also play a role in how efficiently your body converts food into energy and how your body burns calories during exercise.
·         Inactivity. If you're not very active, you don't burn as many calories. With a sedentary lifestyle, you can easily take in more calories every day than you burn through exercise and routine daily activities. Having medical problems, such as arthritis, can lead to decreased activity, which contributes to weight gain.
·         Unhealthy diet. A diet that's high in calories, lacking in fruits and vegetables, full of fast food, and laden with high-calorie beverages and oversized portions contributes to weight gain.
·         Medical problems. In some people, obesity can be traced to a medical cause, such as Prader-Willi syndrome, Cushing's syndrome and other conditions. Medical problems, such as arthritis, also can lead to decreased activity, which may result in weight gain.
·         Certain medications. Some medications can lead to weight gain if you don't compensate through diet or activity. These medications include some antidepressants, anti-seizure medications, diabetes medications, antipsychotic medications, steroids and beta blockers.
·         Age. Obesity can occur at any age, even in young children. But as you age, hormonal changes and a less active lifestyle increase your risk of obesity. In addition, the amount of muscle in your body tends to decrease with age. This lower muscle mass leads to a decrease in metabolism. These changes also reduce calorie needs, and can make it harder to keep off excess weight. If you don't consciously control what you eat and become more physically active as you age, you'll likely gain weight.
·         Pregnancy. During pregnancy, a woman's weight necessarily increases. Some women find this weight difficult to lose after the baby is born. This weight gain may contribute to the development of obesity in women.
·         Quitting smoking. Quitting smoking is often associated with weight gain. And for some, it can lead to enough weight gain that the person becomes obese. In the long run, however, quitting smoking is still a greater benefit to your health than continuing to smoke.
·         Lack of sleep. Not getting enough sleep or getting too much sleep can cause changes in hormones that increase your appetite. You may also crave foods high in calories and carbohydrates, which can contribute to weight gain.

Osteoporosis:
·         Your sex. Women are much more likely to develop osteoporosis than are men.
·         Age. The older you get, the greater your risk of osteoporosis.
·         Race. You're at greatest risk of osteoporosis if you're white or of Asian descent.
·         Family history. Having a parent or sibling with osteoporosis puts you at greater risk, especially if your mother or father experienced a hip fracture.
·         Body frame size. Men and women who have small body frames tend to have a higher risk because they may have less bone mass to draw from as they age.
·         Sedentary lifestyle. People who spend a lot of time sitting have a higher risk of osteoporosis than do those who are more active. Any weight-bearing exercise and activities that promote balance and good posture are beneficial for your bones, but walking, running, jumping, dancing and weightlifting seem particularly helpful.
·         Excessive alcohol consumption. Regular consumption of more than two alcoholic drinks a day increases your risk of osteoporosis.
·         Tobacco use. The exact role tobacco plays in osteoporosis isn't clearly understood, but it has been shown that tobacco use contributes to weak bones.

Lungs cancer:
Tobacco use, alcohol use, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity are the main cancer risk factors worldwide. Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer and have major relevance in low- and middle-income countries. Also personal or family history of lung cancer; people who have had lung cancer have an increased risk of developing a second lung cancer.
Anxiety:
·         Being female. Women are more likely than men to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder.
·         Trauma. Children who endured abuse or trauma or witnessed traumatic events are at higher risk of developing an anxiety disorder at some point in life. Adults who experience a traumatic event also can develop anxiety disorders.
·         Stress due to an illness. Having a health condition or serious illness can cause significant worry about issues such as your treatment and your future.
·         Stress buildup. A big event or a buildup of smaller stressful life situations may trigger excessive anxiety — for example, a death in the family or ongoing worry about finances.
·         Personality. People with certain personality types are more prone to anxiety disorders than are others.
·         Other mental health disorders. People with other mental health disorders, such as depression, often experience anxiety disorder as well.
·         Having blood relatives with an anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders can run in families.
·         Drugs or alcohol. Drug or alcohol use or abuse or withdrawal can cause or worsen anxiety.

2.    Explain the function of the cardiovascular system by describing the cardiac cycle and how it relates to blood pressure, how blood flows through the heart and the blood vessels, capillary exchange, and the function of all the components of blood (plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets). Use illustrations to demonstrate functions.
3.    Explain the function of the respiratory system and how it works with the cardiovascular system to achieve respiration. Describe ventilation, external and internal respiration. Include illustrations of each process.

The respiratory system

The human respiratory system contains the organs that allow us to get the oxygen we need and to remove the waste carbon dioxide we don't need. It contains these parts:
·         lungs
·         tubes leading from the lungs to the mouth and nose
·         various structures in the chest that allow air to move in and out of the lungs.

Ventilation

Movements of the ribs, rib muscles and diaphragm allow air into and out of the lungs. Take care - this is called breathing or ventilation, not respiration. When we breathe in, we inhale. When we breathe out, we exhale.
Air passes between the lungs and the outside of the body through the windpipe, called the trachea. The trachea divides into two bronchi, with one bronchus for each lung.
Each bronchus divides further in the lungs into smaller tubes called bronchioles. At the end of each bronchiole, there is a group of tiny air sacs. These air sacs have bulges called alveoli to increase their surface area.



Interaction
The cardiovascular and the respiratory system both work toward the same goal: getting oxygen to tissues and getting carbon dioxide out. The respiratory system is involved in supplying oxygen to the blood and removing carbon dioxide. When the heart receives blood that is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, it pumps it to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. When the lungs expand and get fresh air from the environment, oxygen is transferred (via the alveoli) into the low-oxygen blood, which also then sends some of its carbon dioxide back into the lungs. Now that this blood has fresh oxygen in it, it returns to the heart and the heart then pumps it throughout the body.

4.    Explain the functions of the urinary system by describing the function of each organ, describe the nephron and its blood supply, and finally describe the process of urine formation using examples of substances that are filtered, reabsorbed and excreted. Use illustrations
·Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine; keep a stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood; and produce erythropoietin, a hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
·Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
·Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two to five hours.
·Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
·Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder.
·Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.
A nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidneys and its chief function is to regulate water and soluble substances in the blood by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. Its function is vital for homeostasis. It is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.
VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCQ-5iwTQvM

6. Calculate the patient’s BMI to determine his nutritional status, and then make at least ten dietary recommendations to improve his overall health.

1.    Focus on fruits. Eat a variety of fruits — fresh, frozen, canned, or dried — rather than fruit juice for most of your fruit choices. For a 2,000-calorie diet, you will need 2 cups of fruit each day. An example of 2 cups is 1 small banana, 1 large orange, and 1/4 cup of dried apricots or peaches.
2.    Vary your veggies. Eat more:
a.     dark green veggies, such as broccoli, kale, and other dark leafy greens
b.    orange veggies, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, and winter squash
c.     beans and peas, such as pinto beans, kidney beans, black beans, garbanzo beans, split peas, and lentils
3.    Get your calcium-rich foods. Each day, drink 3 cups of low-fat or fat-free milk. Or, you can get an equivalent amount of low-fat yogurt and/or low-fat cheese each day. 1.5 ounces of cheese equals 1 cup of milk. If you don't or can't consume milk, choose lactose-free milk products and/or calcium-fortified foods and drinks.
4.    Make half your grains whole. Eat at least 3 ounces of whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or pasta each day. One ounce is about 1 slice of bread, 1 cup of breakfast cereal, or 1/2 cup of cooked rice or pasta. Look to see that grains such as wheat, rice, oats, or corn are referred to as "whole" in the list of ingredients.
5.    Go lean with protein. Choose lean meats and poultry. Bake it, broil it, or grill it. Vary your protein choices with more fish, beans, peas, nuts, and seeds.
6.    Limit saturated fats. Get less than 10 percent of your calories from saturated fatty acids. Most fats should come from sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils. When choosing and preparing meat, poultry, dry beans, and milk or milk products, make choices that are lean, low-fat, or fat-free.
7.    Limit salt. Get less than 2,300 mg of sodium (about 1 teaspoon of salt) each day.


Source: Boundless. “Nephron, Parts, and Histology.” Boundless Anatomy and Physiology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 01 Nov. 2015 from https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/the-urinary-system-25/the-kidneys-239/nephron-parts-and-histology-1170-2287/


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